Obesity in the UK Essay Example for Free

Obesity in the UK Essay Obesity levels in the Untied Kingdom have reached an all time high with one in every four adults suffering from obesity. Childhood obesity has also drastically increased with 25 percent of boys and 33 percent of girls aged between two and 19 years being overweight or obese. There is little sign of this upward trend in obesity stopping, and it will have a significant impact on the state of the country. It will negatively affect the UKs economy and more importantly negatively affect the health of the UKs 63 million people. With obesity becoming this prevalent in our society is it not time we address this issue? I think it is, and one of the best ways in my opinion is to introduce a tax on fizzy drinks and fast food. This may sounds rather drastic when first heard but consider the  £5.1billion spent every year by the NHS to treat those with obesity related medical conditions. Now consider the 2535 branches of Burger King, McDonald’s, KFC and Pizza Hut located all around Scotland and England, consider the number of products those branches sell and the amount of money that could be raised through taxes upon those products. That money could be spent on our NHS which is being crippled under the weight of budget cuts and the cost obesity is having certainly isnt helping the load. These taxes could also deter many from the promise of quick, cheap food from these outlets and could send them in the direction of healthier options. The recommendations in favour of taxing these food are quite reasonable, such as recommendation of taxes of twenty percent on sugary drinks for at least a year being put forth. Other initiatives are already in place to help tackle the UKs weight problem such as the Change 4 Life initiative run by the NHS which offers free nutritional advice to those who want it. The problem is though, that as much good as these schemes are doing they aren’t working well enough. The obesity levels in this country are still rising and we need more action to stop it. We need to have more healthy eating schemes in place around the country in places such as schools, at the work place and even at hospitals. People need to understand the risks of junk food and the major health effects it can have causing obesity, and with obesity comes a vast array of other negative  health effects which include heart disease, certain cancers, high blood pressure, joint problems, psychological difficulties and diabetes. There have been other recommendations on ways to tackle obesity with ideas like banning the advertising of foods high in saturated fat, sugar and salt before 9pm, this can help with the problems of childhood obesity as children would be less likely to have seen these advertisements meaning they were less likely to be influenced by them. Another change that could drastically tip the scales towards healthier eating is giving local councils the power to limit the number of fast food outlets near schools and leisure centres limiting the availability of these types of food to young children. There are also plans for the government to spend  £300 million on weight management programmes, that may sound like a large amount but it is far less than the cost obesity is having on the pockets of the NHS. Taxation on tobacco products has already been proven to help reduce the number of smoking related deaths and the amount of money collected in taxes from tobacco products in 2012 ( £12.1bn) far outweighs the cost smoking related illnesses have on the NHS annually ( £5bn) so surely the idea of taxing fatty and sugary foods is not too drastic. Especially when there are around 35,000 obesity related deaths each year. Other ways to tackle obesity have to do with activities rather than food. Along with the increase in junk food intake by people in the UK there has also been a large lack of exercise or sporting activity. Most people nowadays have jobs that involve sitting at a desk for long periods of the day, this combined with the fact that most people commute to work by car or bus rather than walking equals to a lot of sitting down during the day. After work most people just want to relax and so often sit down on the sofa with a cup of tea and watch television rather than do something active. This problem is hard to tackle but if initiatives at the work place are introduced which include things like sporting clubs offered free by the workplace or other incentives to walk to work rather than drive this can serious help with the daily inactivity. The workplace can also help by removing vending machines that give out junk food and replace them with one  that give out a healthy snack. Finally one more thing the government can do to help with this problem is to subsidise the cost of healthy foods in shops. This will be useful as one of the main reasons people eat unhealthy food is because it is often cheaper than most healthier products. If the healthier products are cheaper than other choices then people are more likely to eat healthily. Or instead of subsidising the food the government could give out food vouchers to those struggling for money to give them discounts on the healthier products in shops. This combined with taxation on the fattier foods can completely change the perception of healthy food in this country and we can begin on the road to eradicating the problem of obesity in the UK. By Rajan Gill 11E

Effectiveness of Different Coaching Styles in Sport

Effectiveness of Different Coaching Styles in Sport Sports Coaching CONTENTS (JUMP TO) Principles and best practice in coaching The effectiveness of different styles of coaching in different contexts How models of coaching can help practitioners References Principles and best practice in coaching The ideal of sport has changed markedly in the past fifteen to twenty years (Polley, 1998)[1]. What was once seen as leisure and/or a recreational activity is now viewed primarily as a vehicle through which one can instigate deep-seated cultural and societal change. This is especially true in the UK which has a particularly insipid connection to sport with a variety of games considered endemic in British society; indeed, many of the most popular sports in the world were played first in Britain and their governing bodies still reside within British state borders. As a result, as Dawn Penney (2000:59) declares, sport, society and equity are interlinked to a degree that has only very recently been acknowledged by academic, specifically sociological, study. â€Å"Physical education and sport are part of our social and cultural worlds. The relationship is dynamic, with the policies and practices of physical education reflecting, but also clearly shaping (reproducing and/or challenging), the values and interests of broader society.†[2] It is for this reason that the concept of ‘best practice’ has attained a new level of significance in recent years relating specifically to the adoption of the finest possible academic, psychological and ethical procedures especially with regards to children and young people so as to prepare them mentally and physically for the multiple demands of adult life whether this be in a sporting or non‑sporting context. ‘Best practice’ utilises research conducted primarily between the years 1950 to 1980 with the implementation of these strategies taking place over the past thirty years. It is a wholly recent phenomenon and, as such, is lacking in some areas of research compared to other fields of sociological study. However, in the twenty first century the amount of attention devoted to the subject is likely to increase with the dual spectre of globalisation and commercialisation making sports a highly lucrative hub of activity. The principles governing the concept of ‘best practice’ are centred upon the twin aims of forging a common sense of unity and teamwork within a group of players and at the same time to nurture individual skill and flair on a one-to-one basis so that the more gifted players’ skills are honed without neglecting the primacy of the team as the over-riding ethos of ‘best practice’. This essential dualism which resides at the epicentre of ‘best practice’ coaching concepts is inherently affected by the evolution of sports players as they grow up. For instance, young players (aged six to ten years old) are much more inclined to gravitate towards the individual element of sports and competition with the group dynamic coming at a later age (developing primarily between the ages of twelve and sixteen). For this reason, there is no ‘best way’ to ‘best practice’; no right or wrong. Rather, there is a great exchange of fluidit y between concepts, principles and practices that should be implemented on an individual basis. This is as true of coaching adults (clients) as it is of coaching youngsters where Jennifer Rogers (2007:7-10)[3] has outlined six core principles that ‘define’ the role of the coach in the modern era. These are: The client is resourceful (the coach’s sole aim is to work with the client to achieve all of their potential – as defined by the client). The coach’s role is to spring loose the client’s resourcefulness. Coaching addressing the whole person: past, present and future. The client sets the agenda. The coach and the client are equals. Coaching is about change and action. The common denominator outlined by Rogers is that coaching is always triggered by change – be it a change in age, in circumstance, in style or technique. Furthermore, because change is the currency in which the coach does business, there is bound to be wildly fluctuating styles of coaching that fit wildly different social and cultural contexts and it is towards these different styles and contexts that attention must now be turned. The effectiveness of different styles of coaching in different contexts It has been shown that the evolution of young people greatly affects the implementation of coaching methods pertaining to the precarious balance between coaching the individual and the group dynamic. This is necessarily dependent on the kind of sport being coached: team sports such as football require a dedication to the team ethic while sports such as tennis and golf stress the individual element of competition. Sports such as cricket combine the team ethic with a heavy emphasis upon individual ability, certainly with regards to batting, which is a very solitary skill that requires intensive levels of concentration and individualism (Palmer, 1999)[4]. Thus, in the first instance, effective coaching requires the practitioner to tailor his or her coaching style to the sport in question and then to further tailor these coaching techniques to the age group of the team or individual being coached. This inherent diversity in coaching styles is also true of the economic context of coaching adults. Certain sports require greater levels of economic participation than others. Golf, for example, is an expensive sport that demands that the participant is well funded so as to purchase the necessary equipment such as clubs, bags, clothing and, most importantly, membership to a golf club. The same can be said of tennis and cricket where the equipment is a vital part of the ultimate success or failure of the technique of the client in question. Economic context is also important with regards to the psychological element of coaching with the social, cultural and political problems of urban poverty playing an important part in the types of coaching techniques which are likely to yield the best results from any given demographic. There can be no doubt that a coaching style employed for a group of middle class practitioners with free access to capital, time and resources is going to be marke dly different from the kind of coaching style deployed for children and adults who do not have access to the same luxuries and who therefore are going to respond to different coaching techniques. Economic context, demographic context and age context are further compounded by the increasingly common problem of multiculturalism and, specifically, globalisation, which has obvious consequences for teachers, mentors and coaches operating at all levels of society throughout the UK. When one thinks, for instance, of the impact of language upon coaching (relaying tactics, pointing out areas of strength and weakness, and, most significantly, attempting to instil a team ethic) one can see the extent to which the role of the coach is inexorably intertwined with the fate of mass movement of peoples across the planet in the twenty first century. As Jones (1997:27) declares, â€Å"there is no more important task within the wider coaching process than that of communication.†[5] Bains and Patel (1994) have long pointed out the blatant under‑representation of Asians playing professional football in England despite some areas in the Midlands and the North-West of England having u rban areas with a higher than 50% ratio of ethnic communities. â€Å"Recent Sport England national statistics confirmed that people of South Asian origin have markedly lower participation rates than other minorities or the indigenous population.† (Collins, 2003:75)[6] This anomaly with regards to the high numbers of Asians living in modern Britain and the disproportionately small number of Asians playing football, it has been argued, is due to coaches indulging in outmoded stereotyping when it comes to coaching players from the Asian community. Asians are still seen as primarily academic achievers over sports players and where they are perceived as sports players they are still pigeon‑holed in typical Asian images of cricket players; rarely are they ever seen as potential professional footballers. Likewise black players are still seen as primarily quick, powerful players; rarely, the tactical brains or the spiritual heartbeat of the side. This cultural element to sports coaching is exacerbated by the historical gender divide between males and females in a sporting context. Here, just as with ethnic people, stereotypes remain the dominant coaching paradigm. Girls and women are expected to play traditionally female sports such as netball, hockey, lacrosse, swimming and tennis. This, however, is in direct opposition to the growing numbers of women playing traditionally male‑dominated sports such as rugby, cricket and football with the latter in particular experiencing a veritable boom in female interest since the beginning of the 1990s. â€Å"A generation ago, sport was a core, patriarchal institution in a larger, contested gender order. Now, with the dramatic growth of girls’ and women’s athletics participation, sport no longer simply or unambiguously plays this reactionary role in gender relations. Sport is now more internally contested.† (2002 introduction xxii)[7] It is, in the final analysis, up to the sports coach to take each of these mitigating factors and contexts into account so that the practitioner is able to coach skills and techniques that are relevant to the contemporary era as opposed to perpetuating anachronistic stereotypes that do little to advance civilised society in both a sporting and non‑sporting context. How models of coaching can help practitioners Studying different models of coaching represents the scientific element of sports mentoring whereby the student and practitioner can attempt to explain the essence and purpose of coaching via the development of models (Fairs, 1987:17-19)[8]. It can be separated into two distinct camps: the ‘of’ coaching camp and the ‘for’ coaching camp. Models ‘of’ coaching are based upon empirical research investigating best practice while the ‘for’ coaching models are idealistic representations that arise from attempts to identify a concrete set of assumptions about the coaching process. The majority of practitioners tend to employ a symbiosis of the two models incorporating an ‘of’ and ‘for’ model of best practice. In this way, empirical data can be used in a realistic setting that takes into account the age, skills and other contexts that affect the coaching process. However, these two models of coaching underline the e xtent to which academia and intellectual analysis has come to dominate the empirical study of sports performance when in fact the first hand experience of established practitioners ought to form the basis of all models of coaching sports. The difference, essentially, comes down to one of theory and practice with the concept of ‘expertise’ necessarily clouded by the arguments of the academics and the professionals respectively. Once again, though, the individual element of the coaching process must be highlighted so as to reflect the inherent complexity that takes place within the field of sports with vastly differing levels of skill and ability being matched by the vastly different psychological reactions to slumps in form and technique. It is, ultimately, up to the national governing sports bodies to ensure that the primacy of holistic coaching practice does not become relegated at the expense of literature, theory and academia (Lyle, 1999:1-24).[9] For this reason, organisations such as Sport England have been established by the central government in a bid to impose a centralise model for sports development on regionalised sports bodies so as to directly influence and aid practitioners. The primary model deployed by Sport England is the â€Å"traditional sports development continuum† – a pyramid which locates foundation as the core, base value followed in hierarchical terms by participation, performance and, finally, excellence (Bramhan et al, 1999:3). This generic model is dovetailed by more advanced models for practitioners to use with athletes at a professional or elite stage in their sports. As is so often the case it is the Australians who represent the pinnacle of academic research into the coaching process with the revolutionary ‘Old Way, New Way’ technique correction model offering an intensive ‘one session’ approach to the problem of proven performers suffering seemingly inexplicable dips in form and technique with the case of Australian fast bowler Jason Gillespie standing tall as the most prominent example of therapeutic success achieved via sports practitioners embracing new means of solving old problems. ‘Old Way, New Way’ is consequently a manifestation of the much sought after collaboration between academic researchers and sports practitioners which works on a psychological as well as a physical level in a bid to continue the sportsperson’s quest for skill development and continuous technical improvement. References Bramhan, P., Hylton, K., Jackson, D. and Nesti, M. (1999) Introduction, in, Bramhan, P., Hylton, K., Jackson, D. and Nesti, M (Eds.) Sport Development: Policy, Process and Practice London and New York: Routledge Collins, M.F. (2003), Social Exclusion from Sport and Leisure, quoted in, Houlihan, B. (Ed.) Sport and Society: a Student Introduction London: SAGE Fairs, J. (1987) The Coaching Process: The Essence of Coaching, in, Sports Coach Journal, Volume 11, Number 1 Jones, R.L. (1997) Effective Instructional Coaching Behaviour: A Review of Literature, in, International Journal of Physical Education, Volume, 24, Number 1 Lyle, J.W.B. (1999) The Coaching Process: Principles and Practice, in, Cross, N. and Lyle, J.W.B. (Eds.) The Coaching Process: Principles and Practice for Sport Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Messner, M.A. (2002), Taking the Field: Women, Men and Sports Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press Palmer, G.V. (1999) Cricket Coachmaster: Batting Mechanics London: Gary Palmer Penney, D. (2000) Physical Education: In what and who’s Interests? , in, Jones, R.L. and Armour, K.M. (Eds.) Sociology of Sport: Theory and Practice London and New York: Longman Polley, M. (1998) Moving the Goalposts: A History of Sport and Society since 1945 London and New York: Routledge Rogers, J. (2007) Coaching Skills Buckingham: Open University Press 1 Footnotes [1] Polley, M. (1998) Moving the Goalposts: A History of Sport and Society since 1945 London and New York: Routledge [2] Penney, D. (2000) Physical Education: In what and who’s Interests? , in, Jones, R.L. and Armour, K.M. (Eds.) Sociology of Sport: Theory and Practice London and New York: Longman [3] Rogers, J. (2007) Coaching Skills Buckingham: Open University Press [4] Palmer, G.V. (1999) Cricket Coachmaster: Batting Mechanics London: Gary Palmer [5] Jones, R.L. (1997) Effective Instructional Coaching Behaviour: A Review of Literature, in, International Journal of Physical Education, Volume, 24, Number 1 [6] Collins, M.F. (2003), Social Exclusion from Sport and Leisure, quoted in, Houlihan, B. (Ed.) Sport and Society: a Student Introduction London: SAGE [7] Messner, M.A. (2002), Taking the Field: Women, Men and Sports Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press [8] Fairs, J. (1987) The Coaching Process: The Essence of Coaching, in, Sports Coach Journal, Volume 11, Number 1 [9] Lyle, J.W.B. (1999) The Coaching Process: Principles and Practice, in, Cross, N. and Lyle, J.W.B. (Eds.) The Coaching Process: Principles and Practice for Sport Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann

The War Poems of Wilfred Owen - Contradicting the Classical Ideas of He

Contradicting the Classical Ideas of Heroism and Romanticism in Dulce et Decorum est, The Send Off, But I Was Looking At The Permanent Stars, The Deadbeat soldier, Counter Attack, Metal Cases and other War Poems by Wilfred Owen   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Owen displays the reality of war, atypically shown in 20th century literature. By divulging the secrecies and terrors of brutal warfare, he exposes the superficiality of valor and false heroism; through his vivid writing, he opens the eyelids of his readers and discloses, â€Å"the old lie (Owen, Dulce et Decorum est, 25). Owen breaks idealism, replacing it with illness, physical injuries, exhaustion, fatigue and personal hells. Contrasting the Hemingway code hero, Owen displays the reality of war, which diverges from the epic and heroic displays of war displayed through classic characters like the code hero.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The dead beat soldier symbolizes classic 20th century anti-war sentiments. Flesh torn and maggot eaten, skin writhing, crack and molested from heat; the dead beat soldier is presumably one of the most wretched people, and one with the most deathlike traits. Death written in his eyes, he walks fruitlessly with no aim; for one who walks with no purpose is the living dead. Both mind and spirit have been broken, the pieces of body that seem to drop off fall in line with what is already lost; this is the result of war. The soldier can be looked at as the living dead because although he is alive, he is dead in mind and spirit and heart. â€Å"He dropped,- more sullenly that wearily, lay stupid like a cod, heavy like meat (Owen, The Deadbeat soldier, 1-2).† â€Å"Just blinker at my revolver, blearily; didn’t appear to know a war was on (3-4).† The deadbeat soldier reverts to a fetal like mental state, incapable of noticing or responding to the world around them. This state is not so much a rupture in brutish nature, but a reversion back to nothingness and unknowingness for protection; rather both mind and body shut down from weariness. The dead beat soldier no longer responds to their environment; it’s as if their reality no longer exists. They are not worn from war, but rather circumstance and loss of hope, lives and chance. â€Å"It’s Blighty, ‘praps, he sees; his pluck’s all gone, dreaming of all the valiant, they aren’t dead: Bold uncles, smiling ministerially (10-12).† â€Å"Maybe his brave young wife, getting her fun. In some new home, ... ...and the Young, 7-11).† Isaac is betrayed by his father and murderers that he may have more glory symbolizing the government and soldiers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The reasons why the men chose to go into war are shown as foolish and not self-controlled. â€Å"It was after football, when he’d drank a peg, He thought he’d better join- He wonders why (Disabled 23-24).† â€Å"Smiling they wrote his lie: age 19 years. Germans he scarcely thought of; all their guilt, And Austria’s, did not move him. And no fears of Fear came yet. He thought of jeweled hilts For daggers in plaid socks; of smart solutes; And care of Arms; and leave; and pay arrears. This was the â€Å"old lie (28),† imbedded in the young men. â€Å"There was no glory, little or no honor; Some cheered him home, but not as a crowd cheers a goal (Disabled, 37-39).† Owen tries to discard the â€Å"old lie (28),† through his war poems and through smart prose creates a plausible contradiction to classical ideas of heroism and romanticism. Works Cited Owen, Wilfred. Wilfred Owen: Collected Letters. Ed. Harold Owen and John Bell. London: Oxford UP, 1967. -----. Wilfred Owen: The Complete Poems and Fragments. Ed. John Stallworthy. 2 vols. New York: Norton, 1984. The War Poems of Wilfred Owen - Contradicting the Classical Ideas of He Contradicting the Classical Ideas of Heroism and Romanticism in Dulce et Decorum est, The Send Off, But I Was Looking At The Permanent Stars, The Deadbeat soldier, Counter Attack, Metal Cases and other War Poems by Wilfred Owen   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Owen displays the reality of war, atypically shown in 20th century literature. By divulging the secrecies and terrors of brutal warfare, he exposes the superficiality of valor and false heroism; through his vivid writing, he opens the eyelids of his readers and discloses, â€Å"the old lie (Owen, Dulce et Decorum est, 25). Owen breaks idealism, replacing it with illness, physical injuries, exhaustion, fatigue and personal hells. Contrasting the Hemingway code hero, Owen displays the reality of war, which diverges from the epic and heroic displays of war displayed through classic characters like the code hero.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The dead beat soldier symbolizes classic 20th century anti-war sentiments. Flesh torn and maggot eaten, skin writhing, crack and molested from heat; the dead beat soldier is presumably one of the most wretched people, and one with the most deathlike traits. Death written in his eyes, he walks fruitlessly with no aim; for one who walks with no purpose is the living dead. Both mind and spirit have been broken, the pieces of body that seem to drop off fall in line with what is already lost; this is the result of war. The soldier can be looked at as the living dead because although he is alive, he is dead in mind and spirit and heart. â€Å"He dropped,- more sullenly that wearily, lay stupid like a cod, heavy like meat (Owen, The Deadbeat soldier, 1-2).† â€Å"Just blinker at my revolver, blearily; didn’t appear to know a war was on (3-4).† The deadbeat soldier reverts to a fetal like mental state, incapable of noticing or responding to the world around them. This state is not so much a rupture in brutish nature, but a reversion back to nothingness and unknowingness for protection; rather both mind and body shut down from weariness. The dead beat soldier no longer responds to their environment; it’s as if their reality no longer exists. They are not worn from war, but rather circumstance and loss of hope, lives and chance. â€Å"It’s Blighty, ‘praps, he sees; his pluck’s all gone, dreaming of all the valiant, they aren’t dead: Bold uncles, smiling ministerially (10-12).† â€Å"Maybe his brave young wife, getting her fun. In some new home, ... ...and the Young, 7-11).† Isaac is betrayed by his father and murderers that he may have more glory symbolizing the government and soldiers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The reasons why the men chose to go into war are shown as foolish and not self-controlled. â€Å"It was after football, when he’d drank a peg, He thought he’d better join- He wonders why (Disabled 23-24).† â€Å"Smiling they wrote his lie: age 19 years. Germans he scarcely thought of; all their guilt, And Austria’s, did not move him. And no fears of Fear came yet. He thought of jeweled hilts For daggers in plaid socks; of smart solutes; And care of Arms; and leave; and pay arrears. This was the â€Å"old lie (28),† imbedded in the young men. â€Å"There was no glory, little or no honor; Some cheered him home, but not as a crowd cheers a goal (Disabled, 37-39).† Owen tries to discard the â€Å"old lie (28),† through his war poems and through smart prose creates a plausible contradiction to classical ideas of heroism and romanticism. Works Cited Owen, Wilfred. Wilfred Owen: Collected Letters. Ed. Harold Owen and John Bell. London: Oxford UP, 1967. -----. Wilfred Owen: The Complete Poems and Fragments. Ed. John Stallworthy. 2 vols. New York: Norton, 1984.

The Law of God and the Laws of the Cities in Philo of Alexandria :: Philosophy Philosophical Papers

The Law of God and the Laws of the Cities in Philo of Alexandria ABSTRACT: I evaluate the position of philosophy within Philo’s theory of education as well as its relation to encyclical studies and to the highest forms of knowledge. According to Philo, true knowledge is knowledge of the law of God. Such is the role of philosophy. There exists a strong relation among the various fields of study reflecting the order that exists in all spheres of reality. Order and harmony are the same in an individual, in a state, and in the cosmos. Order and harmony reflects the law set down by God, who is both creator and foundation of such an order. The study of higher truth and the attempt to reach wisdom enlightens secular knowledge and behavior as well. The question is not merely one of maintaining political order; it is, rather, one of adhering to the order established by God. Such order is not open to discussion or alteration. My aim is to study the position of philosophy within Philo's theory of education, its relation to encyclical studies and to the highest forms of knowledge. As true knowledge is the knowing of the law of God and all the studies should aim to transmit and explain it, philosophy gets its role within this view point. There is a strong relation among the various fields of study, as one and the same the order is in all the different spheres of reality. Order and harmony in an individual and in a state are the same as in the cosmos; they are the order and the harmony of the law set down by God, who is both creator and foundation of such order. So, one and the same the law is for an individual, for a state, for the cosmos.(1) Thus the study of higher truths and the attempt to reach wisdom enlightens also secular knowledge and behaviours. There is no difference between unbalance within a city and within a soul; the first relies on the second and the transgression of the Law consists in abandoning the observance of divine word. It isn't only a question of knowing how to maintain a situation established by rulers or by individuals ethically engaged, but also of following an order and a law which come from God, which, as such, are not discussable and alterable. However, many peoples in the world don't relate to divine law.

Society and Government Essay -- Philosophy, Hobbes, Locke

Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan and John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government have produced two definitive and vastly different theories of government. Though both philosophers seem to be embedded in the concept of a natural law, why do Hobbes and Locke seem to come to two opposing conclusions about society and government? The answer lies in critical distinctions between their interpretations on the state of nature, including their conjectures on human nature, their perceptions of freedom and equality, and their ultimate reasoning for civil society. Human nature is an integral part of the state of nature theory. Hobbes’ theorizes that human nature is flawed, with men being naturally selfish and hedonistic: â€Å"of the voluntary acts of every man, the object is some Good to himselfe† (Hobbes, 1996, p. 93). This suggests that in a natural state, humans are only guided by their own needs and wants. As a result, Hobbes believes that the only law that governs the state of nature is maintenance of self-preservation. This gives rise to a clashing of desires, which compels man to undermine any concern for others and put oneself above all else. The extent to which man is able to undermine others for the sake of self-benefit is also limitless according to Hobbes: â€Å"in this law of Nature for where no covenant hath preceded, there hath nor Right been transferred and every man had right to everything; and consequently, no action can be Unjust† (Hobbes, 1996, p. 100). There is a clear Hobbesian view of morality that begins to take form. Good and evil seem to be relative to Hobbes. Because of this, each individual in the state of nature has varying perceptions of morality, which often conflict, creating disagreement that only incites violence. This pr... ...have consent in order to act. This essentially gives sovereign power to the people. This philosophy is also consistent with Locke’s favor for a republican structure of government. The apparent difference seen between the political theories of Hobbes and Locke can be attributed to their differing views on the state of nature. The development of mankind as a selfish being living in a state of war and violently attempting to obtain equality naturally lead Hobbes to conclude that an authoritative power is needed to instill order to chaos. On the other side of the spectrum, Lock molds the state of nature to be a state of peace, and attributing men to Reasonable creatures and consequently creates a representative government where the people hold sovereign power. Essentially, these theories seem are a result of a pessimistic and optimistic framing of nature and humanity.

What is meant in psychology by the term attachment?

The psychological explanation for the term ‘attachment’ is where you form an emotional bond to another person or object both physically and mentally. And to feel secure. John Bowlby (1969) described it as a lasting psychological connectedness between human beings. He also stated that early experiences In childhood have an important influence on development & behavior on the individual’s life. Attachment behavior is essentially a survival strategy from evolution for protecting infants from predators. Question 2 According to Bowlby, what harm is caused to an individual if he or she is deprived of an attachment bond in early childhood? If the process of ‘attachment’ is ‘interrupted’, the individual may develop mental issues such as depression, behavioural issues, find it hard to make relationships, even goes as far as psychiatric disorders, dwarfism, acute distress or possibly death if the attachment bond is interrupted. From the 1940’s – 1970’s it was determined that a child must have a secure mother-child relationship if the infant was not to suffer any long term problems. Bowlby did a case study on 44 Juvenile thieves and to his amazement discovered that a majority of them had suffered some sort of separation from their mothers, possibly more than 6 months or more in the first critical 5 years of their lives. This was actually proven to be of a biased nature as Bowlby did find that most of them had suffered some form of separation from their mothers and he presumed that this was the case of their delinquency. He also found that a small number of the juvenile thieves were unable to make â€Å"true† affection bonds. But these findings could be thrown out as Bowlby never had results from a â€Å"controlled group† to compare his findings. Harlow did an experiment with this in mind with rhesus monkeys – â€Å"wire mother experiment†. It was conducted in 1960 to show the devastating effects deprivation. His experiments were classed as unethical and cruel, but they uncovered truths which have had a heavy influence on our understanding of child development. Question 3 What factors appear to be necessary to bring about attachment? Time and attention as well as the factor to attend to an infant immediately will bring out partial attachment. Sight is also an important factor as well. Jean Piaget proved that theory when he did a case study on infants aged between the age 8/9 months, by covering a toy with cloth to see if they would â€Å"look or search† for the object when it had disappeared out of sight. Schaffer and Emerson (1964) noted that not only do infants form a solid attachment to their mother (or mother figures), but that a substantial amount of infants also made a close attachment to their fathers and older siblings. Mary Ainsworth () had distinguished between infants who had successfully managed to make secure and insecure attachments. The results showed that it was how the mother (or mother figure) showed sensitivity, i.e. detecting her infants signals, managing to interpret them and how the mother (or mother figure would react and respond appropriately). Question 4 Describe and evaluate the evidence which has found that children can develop normally despite maternal separation? Chibuccs & Kail (1981), found that there were 3 factors. It was as follows:- 1) how playful he was towards the baby 2) how much contact the have with the baby 3) Reads a baby signals They noted that a mother would hold, smile, show more affection towards a child as well as routine physical care. The father would play more but it was more physical and that they would interact more with boys both physically and mentally than they did girls. Kohen-Raz (1968), did a study on the kibbutz. It was noted that kibbutz children were equal in physical & mental skills to Israeli children, who were raised in private homes BUT were superior to Israeli children raised in orphanages. Rabkin & Rabkin (1969) and Nahir & Yussen (1977) found that the kibbutz children could demonstrate several advanced characteristics than children raised at home, and that they also could show signs of recognition in how other children felt from an early age. Question 5 Why do same people argue that animals should not be used in psychology experiments? It has been noted that its acceptable perform experiments on animals especially primates as they are the closest relation to humans. Where preforming experiments on human kind is would be considered as outrageous and unethical. It’s obvious that the experiments involving animals for psychological and behavioural experiments cause suffering but they shall be forth coming as it’s funded by tax payer’s money World Wide. The experiments are aimed to help understand mental disorders and attachment disorders. Cahann only obtain results by watching human behaviour closely not under experimental circumstances. Question 6 Describe and evaluate one study of visual perception in human infants. Gibson & Walk – 1960 (visual cliff) This was an experiment which consisted to measure depth perception where they attempted to get infants to walkover a glass plate suspended over a drop. Gibson & Walk wanted to find out whether 6 to 14 month old infants could perceive depth. Babies have a natural sense of danger so the experiment was designed to see if they can see it’s perfectly safe. Case studies were placed each time in the middle of a table, where 1 side was replaced by glass to expose the â€Å"danger†. Their mothers would then try to tempt the infant over both sides. The results showed that if the case study (infant) had no depth perception then the glass drop wouldn’t seem scary and they would just walk all over the table. Those that didn’t have depth perception and could see the drop, they would automatically avoid it.

Abortion: Notecards Essay

1) Who’s having abortions (age)? 50% of women obtaining abortions in the U.S. are younger than 25: Women aged 20-24 obtain 33% of all abortions; Teenagers obtain 17% and girls under 15 account for 1.2%. 2) Who’s having abortions (race)? While white women obtain 60% of all abortions, their abortion rate is well below that of minority women. Black women are more than 3 times as likely as white women to have an abortion, and Hispanic women are roughly 2 times as likely. See more: Defining research problem and setting objectives Essay 3) Who’s having abortions (marital status)? 66% of all abortions are performed on never-married women; Married women account for 18.4% of all abortions and divorced women obtain 9.4%. 4) Who’s having abortions (religion)? Women identifying themselves as Protestants obtain 43% of all abortions in the U.S.; Catholic women account for 27%, Jewish women account for 1.3%, and women with no religious affiliation obtain 23.7% of all abortions. 18% of all abortions are performed on women who identify themselves as â€Å"Born-again/Evangelical†. 5) Who’s having abortions (income)? Women with family incomes less than $15,000 obtain 28.7% of all abortions; Women with family incomes between $15,000 and $29,999 obtain 19.5%; Women with family incomes between $30,000 and $59,999 obtain 38.0%; Women with family incomes over $60,000 obtain 13.8%. 6) Why women have abortions 1% of all abortions occur because of rape or incest; 6% of abortions occur because of potential health problems regarding either the mother or child, and 93% of all abortions occur for social reasons (i.e. the child is unwanted or inconvenient). 7) Likelihood of abortion: An estimated 35% of all women will have at least 1 abortion by the time they are 45 years old. 47% of all abortions are performed on women who have had at least one previous abortion. 8) Abortion coverage: 67% of all abortion facilities offer at least some abortion services after the 12th week of pregnancy. 9 in 10 managed care plans routinely cover abortion or provide limited coverage. About 14% of all abortions in the United States are paid for with public funds, virtually all of which are state funds. 16 states (CA, CT, HI, ED, IL, MA , MD, MD, MN, MT, NJ, NM, NY, OR, VT, WA and WV) pay for abortions for some poor women. Facts about risks: 9) FUTURE ECTOPIC PREGNANCIES: * Studies point out that the risk of an ectopic or tubal (not in the uterus but in the tubes that lead to the uterus) ;pregnancy is 30% higher for women who have had one abortion, and up to four times higher for women with two or more abortions. * When a woman has an Ectopic pregnancy she has a 12% risk of dying in a future pregnancy. 10) PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE (PID): * 5% of women suffer PID following induced (or surgical) abortion. PID can lead to fever and infertility (not being able to get pregnant again). * There is a 23% higher risk of infection if you have an STD (Sexually Transmitted Disease). * 40% of the sexually active are suspected carriers of STDs. 11) BREAST CANCER: Reputable studies suggests that women who abort face a 50% increase in breast cancer. If the woman has a family history of breast cancer, this rate doubles with each successive abortion, if the woman is under 18 or over 30 years of age when the abortion takes place. 12) ABRUPTIO PLACENTA: Abruptio Placenta is a condition in pregnancy where the sac holding the baby (the placenta) tears away from the uterine lining. This can result in extreme and severe life-threatening bleeding. Women who have experienced abortion have a 600% increase in their risk for Abruptio Placenta in future pregnancies. 13) INFERTILITY: Infertility and sterility mean that a woman cannot get pregnant. Abortion causes sterility in 2-5% of the women who have an abortion. 14) PSYCHOLOGICAL/EMOTIONAL TRAUMA: 50% of women who have had abortions report experiencing emotional and psychological problems lasting for months or years. 15) Fact: Laws restricting teen access to abortion are coercive. Laws in 46 states and the District of Columbia allow mothers who are under 18 to place their children for adoption without involving their parents, but many of those same states require parental notification or consent before these young women can obtain abortions. 16) Fact: Each year, one million American teenagers become pregnant, and 78% of these pregnancies are unintended. Four in every five Americans begin having intercourse before age 20. Many of the youngest women in this group (70% of those age 13 or under) report having had sex forced on them. By the time they turn 20, about 40% of American women have been pregnant at least once. * Statistics: * Nearly 1 in 4 (22%) of pregnancies end in abortion * 50% of women now seeking abortion have had at least one previous abortion. * The U.S. abortion rate is among the highest of developed countries. * 51% of abortions are performed on women less than 25 years of age.