Building block assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Building block - Assignment Example A weakness of Starbucks Cafà © is that its product is a luxury item that performs poorly during bad economic times. Another weakness of Starbucks Cafà © is high raw material costs. Starbuck Cafà © uses only fair trade coffee at its stores which is more than twice as expensive as regular coffee. Starbucks Cafà © is a company that has expanded its operations oversees. The company has further opportunities for expansion into foreign markets. The firm must expand internationally because the U.S market has become saturated. Another opportunity for Starbucks Cafà © is the potential to grow its sales in the retail marketplace by selling unprepared pounds of Starbucks coffee at supermarkets and other establishments. A threat that Starbucks Cafà © must be aware of is substitute products. In terms of competition in the coffee marketplace a major threat to the company is the continued expansion of McCafà ©. McDonald’s has over 34,000 establishments worldwide and its McCafà © operation sells quality coffee at lower prices than Starbucks

Ratio and Financial Statement Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Ratio and Financial Statement Analysis - Essay Example Concepts that have been used include annuity which is a series of constant cash flows that occurs at the end of each period called a term, perpetuity which is a financial asset that does not have a maturity period but keep making payments indefinitely, compounding which is finding the future value of one or more cash flows, discounting which is determining the present value of one or more future cash flows. Financial decisions are made based on future value or present value. Future value is what one or more cash flows are worth at the end of the period while the present value measures the worth of one or more cash flows to be received in the future are worth today. The effective annual interest rate which is the annual growth rate that takes into account compounding. These concepts are fully covered in the paper while handing the questions. Financial management ratios are an area of expertise that every manager in any financial position should get acquainted with. They are useful in helping him to make sound financial decisions on the source of funds, the investment option to undertake and the financial prudence needed in the running of a business entity. What the time value of money is and why it is so important in the field of finance: The question that comes to mind is what the value of a future cash flow is today. The time value of money is the value of the stream of future cash flows today. Money has a time value since a dollar held today is worth more than a dollar to be received in the future. If you had the money today, you would have probably invested it and earned interest thus time value of money is the opportunity cost of foregoing todays consumption. Time value of money is important in the field of fiancà © because before investment decisions are made there is required that a comparison be made between the value funds invested today and the value of expected future cash inflows. The

Dubai Cultural environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Dubai Cultural environment - Essay Example This is because culture may impact effective business performance in case it is not taken into considerations seriously. Dubai people who are the Arabs emphasize on generosity, respect and modesty and a persons’ honor is paramount because it is a way of communicating indirectly. The Arabs consider civility as a significant value and the status of an individual is well taken into considerations. Therefore, before the American Company make decisions of considering Dubai for their international expansion plans; they should fully understand the cultural environment of Dubai. The cultural environment of Dubai is unique because of the way cultural values of the Arabs put value on relationships an evident in which people can integrate work and socializing. The normal working period of the Arabs is from morning up to evening, and in between working period, there is a tea break and lunch break. The Arabs take a long lunch break, which is followed by resting and many breaks for praying. The Arabs beliefs that the long breaks offer a chance for the customers; thus turning out this to be an opportunity for successful business. Therefore, the American company should understand the way the Arabs integrate work and socialization. ... Hofstede carried out research analysis in order to determine significant cultural dimensions. He carried out varied cultural value dimensions that came from IBM labor force surveys that were conducted in more than 50 cultures between 1967 to 1973 (Ghemawat and Reiche 3). The research study aimed to reveal varied cultural dimensions including power distance, individualism or collectivism, uncertainty avoidance and masculinity or femininity (Ghemawat and Reiche 3). Therefore, these are among the significant cultural values dimension that the American company should take into considerations before planning to expand their business in Dubai. One of the cultural value dimensions that the American company investors should take into considerations before expanding their business is a high power distance. Power distance is the degree to which a certain culture accepts and reinforces the fact that power is distributed unevenly in the society (Ghemawat and Reiche 3). Therefore, the American Co mpany considering Dubai for its international expansion plans should understand power distance. This is essential because it will enable their business to thrive effectively; thus achieving successful business performance. The American company should understand that power distance is unfairly distributed in Dubai. This is because Dubai is one of the regions that have cultural values and customs that are rooted in Islamic laws. These laws may impact the business in different ways including on the way and when the business is conducted for organization design. Therefore, success of the American company can be based on understanding these differences and the ways Arabs approach situation better or worse than in other cultures. Some power distance varies

Voting Behaviour Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Voting Behaviour - Case Study Example These are based on studies conducted by the Center for Research into Elections and Social Trends (CREST). This section will also deal with the changes in voting behaviour patterns that have been observed in Britain, and how changes in social and economic systems can impact voter behaviour. The next section will deal with the common theoretical frameworks used in the analysis of voting behaviour. Based on the discussions in the book, 'Political Choice in Britain' (2004), by Clarke, Sanders, Stewart and Whiteley, this part will deal with the traditional sociological framework, followed by the individual rationalist approach. Widening the scope of the individual rationalist approach, the focus will shift to what are termed valence politics models. In the next section, these models will be used to analyse the voting behaviour patterns in the 2001 and 2005 general elections. This section will also discuss the issues of voter apathy and the growing trend towards tactical voting. The paper will conclude with a discussion on the changing patterns of voter behaviour in Britain, and will also discuss how these can be very essential in predicting the outcome of future elections in Britain. A key factor influencing voter behaviour is social attitude. ... Discussing voting behaviour, the CREST studies note that the social class remains a key influence on how people vote. Curtice (2002) states that this is in line with Pulzer's famous words, "Class is the basis of British politics; all else is embellishment and detail". The studies also note that a voter's behaviour is not motivated by self-interest and that the media, especially newspapers, have little influence on the election results. The studies also note the emergence of tactical voting as a means of expressing preferences. Changes in social attitudes and voting behaviour are a result of changing social and economic conditions. In the 21st century, the common man in Britain does not enjoy the social and economic certainty and cohesion that characterized life in the 1950s. The employment position is less secure, and the society he/she lives in is more diverse. In modern Britain, class boundaries are more fluid, and the average citizen has access to several sources of information, and the right to make the appropriate social and economic choices. (Clarke, Sanders, Stewart and Whiteley,2004, pg.2) The socio-economic changes have had an impact on the political thinking of the citizens as well. The biggest impact has perhaps been on the attitude of the British citizens towards politics, especially in how they vote at the time of elections. To understand the changes in voting patterns, the models of voting behaviour need to be studied. Models of Voting Behaviour There are several theoretical frameworks that analyse voting behaviour in elections. The foremost among them is the sociological framework proposed by Butler and Stokes in 1969. This framework works on three levels. To begin with,

The origin of the third world plight Essay Example for Free

The origin of the third world plight Essay Thesis The Third world countries have continued to witness some of the most challenging times in their quest for real development that would catapult their economies to march those ones of the first worlds. However these countries have been bedeviled by major obstacles of bad governance, corruption, and exploitation by the first world countries. Of great concern has been the contribution of major world bodies that have continued to impoverish these economies in the name of supporting them. The World Bank stands out as one of the culprits. Introduction Many times is when some people do not understand what is meant by the term ‘third world plight’. This in terms means, they are those countries that still are developing. The third world countries are greatly in substantial indebt ness according to statistics. More than 50% of the people living in third world countries are living below the poverty line: this is below a dollar a day. It is reckoning, how this is happening, but the World Bank has attributed all this. In 1986 –1987, the World Bank’s president Barber Conable said that the World Bank had been a great success, yet it only oppresses the governments in the third world countries. In 1962, Robert McNamara who was the bank’s president led it to achieve higher loans levels and by the time he was resigning in 1981, the levels had increased from $883 million to over $12 billion. (James Bovard) McNamara and the World Bank supported Nyerere’s dictatorial regime and the bank gave more aid to Tanzania hence the cause of the current misery of the Tanzanian people. This kind of act by the World Bank was wanting, as it only devastated the third world countries. In late 1970’s, the World Bank also financed the Vietnamese’s government thus encouraging their brutal policies that brought about a lot of deaths of the boat people in the south sea. The bank was to finance an irrigation project that was risky, as it would be subjected to rebellion among the farmers. Farmers who resisted the project ended up being drowned in the sea. (James Bovard) The World Bank lent $600million to the Indonesian government to forcibly remove people from Java Island and resettle them in the barren islands. It was due to this transmigration, that violence erupted in Indonesia, leading to the deaths of thousands of people. Despite this fact, the bank termed this as the â€Å"largest voluntary migration.† This was clarion of the banks hypocrisy as it violated human’s rights. The bank provided capital to the Ethiopian Marxist regime of Mengistu Haile Mariam. (James Bovard)   In 1984 – 1985, Ethiopia was struck by famine and this forced the government to forcibly deport people in northern Ethiopia to the south. It is believed that more deaths occurred as would have been caused by the famine. The government introduced the villagilization program but many people still rebelled against it and were killed. Despite of all this happenings, the bank still continued to lend money, as it was not concerned with the citizens but seemed to provide more help to the bureaucrats and politicians. (James Bovard) The World bank is highly to blame on the poverty in the third world countries as it uses to pressure to this countries to lend more money than which is borrowed. The audit of Madagascar Morondava Irrigation and Rural Development Project is a good example, where by the new government was pressured by the bank to accept the project so as to be submitted to the executive directors. It is evident that the World Bank gave wrong advice to the third world countries and it’s clearly brought in Western Africa in the project of promoting cocoa and coffee. This simply failed because the bank had encouraged the farmers to grow cash crops in unsuitable soils. (Barbara G 18) The world bank in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s aim, was to lend money in order to boost food production in Africa and other developing countries but this did not happen as almost 20% of the food production had fallen because much of the bank’s investments went to big irrigation schemes and state farms thus wastage of money. It is due to the bank’s poor investments that dragged down the entire economies of the third world countries. (Peter T. Bauer 21) In 1980, the world began Structural Adjustment Loans programs that encouraged policy reforms. Most of these loans were mainly going to the governments of the third world countries in repaying their debts to the bank or the international momentary fund. In 1984, a statement from a world bank’s official was bizarre, as he said, â€Å"if china is to maintain a reasonable growth rate and manageable debt service payments, it will need to obtain the necessary additional foreigner capital at an average interest rate below the market rate.† This implied that even investments in the third world countries would not be greater than the banks interest hence putting third world countries into deeper poverty’(Peter T. Bauer 23)    Problems faced by the third world countries Malnutrition- a good example is in Kenya whereby a bank report found severe malnutrition widespread among the beneficiaries. Barbara Gunnell concluded ‘the real loser is the Kenyan government, or future generations of Kenyans who will go on paying the World Bank interest on the loan.’ This was due to the fact that the bank had invested $20 million in Bura irrigation but when the then president Daniel Moi toured Bura he found ‘eroded irrigation canals, abandoned plots, poor crops, tumbledown and unsanitary housing, zebra grazing on irrigated land and on air of decay’(Peter T. Bauer 23) Diseases -a lot of diseases have become wide spread in these third world countries and they include; The AIDS pandemic, malaria, cholera among others. Poor infrastructure- poor insfrastructure has become a major threat to these countries as many accidents occur though roads that are constructed well but the cost of maintenance is quite high hence they become dilapidated. (Peter T. Bauer 24) Desertification- an example is in Botswana whereby two livestock projects that were to promote cattle rising resulted to overgrazing. The bank further introduced a third livestock project despite the fact that it led to overgrazing. (Peter T. Bauer 26) Displacement- the bank is spending about half a billion dollars in the largest westwards-flowing river in India to dam it. This was proved that it would end up displacing thousands of people and destroying a lot of land but the World Bank went ahead with its plan. Insecurity- the third world countries have been faced with high rate of insecurity as foreign direct investments have been directed to other regions hence of no benefits to these countries as high crime rates still continues. (Peter T. Bauer 33) Poverty – many people in the third world countries are living below the poverty line due to the indebt ness that they have to their donors, international momentary fund and the World Bank. (Peter T. Bauer 34) Conclusion It is evident that though the World Bank has helped these countries, it is majorly to blame for dragging their economies. For all countries in the world to be at par, it only would be best to cancel of, the debt of the so-called third world countries. The bank ought to encourage reductions in lending capital to enable these countries economies to grow. It could also not lend capital that will be of bad use, as this only benefits politicians of these countries and continues to deteriorate their economies. Works Cited Barbara Gunnell, The Great Bura Irrigation Scheme Disaster, African Business (April  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1986): 18. James Bovard: The World Bank vs. the World Poor: Policy Analysis: Retrieved on 13th May 2008 from http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa092.html Peter T. Bauer: Equality. The Third World. And Economic Delusion: Cambridge, Harvard  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   University Press, 1981 p. 21.

Relationship Between Divorce and Family Models | Proposal

Relationship Between Divorce and Family Models | Proposal Aim and Hypothesis â€Å"The conventional nuclear family is already a thing of the past,† writes Madeleine Bunting, author of ‘Willing Slaves: How the Overwork Culture is Ruling Our Lives[1]’. Current statistics do indeed paint a worrying picture; in the past 30 years the rate of divorce has doubled[2], Britain now having the highest divorce rate in Europe. Concurrently, the proportion of women in full-time employment has trebled, with maternal employment having increased by 8% to 65%[3]. As a firm believer in the Nuclear Family model, these findings and predictions are of particular personal concern. For this reason I have chosen this area as the focus for my sociological research. I have chosen to concentrate my study on the relationship between the ever-changing female sex stereotype, and the heightened rates of divorce. My test hypothesis is therefore as follows: â€Å"Divorce is more prevalent amongst families where the mother does not willingly accept the traditional female sex employment stereotype.’ Contexts and Concepts: The context of this hypothesis is best understood in light of two research studies which have been conducted previously in this area. The first was an exploratory research study conducted by Geoff Dench of Middlesex University into men’s family roles, entitled â€Å"The Place of Men in Changing Family Cultures.[4]† In this study, Dench identified two main family types; the ‘conventional family’ and the ‘deregulated family.’ The conventional family model represents a traditional family formulation in which each member has interpersonal rights and obligations arising from their marriage [or birth, if children]. The reciprocal support structure inherent in this model results in individual free choice being limited; purely personal interests may therefore need to be compromised. Dench identified that members of this group would be more inclined to see a distinction between what may be good for them as an individual, and what may be good for the family as a whole. The deregulated family model represents an individualist family formulation in which each member is responsible for upholding their own rights and negotiations of those rights. To this extent, individual choice is prevalent within this group; autonomy being the over-arching ideal. Respondents in this group expressed a view that traditional gender roles were a source of social injustice, and rejected the notion of the ‘conventional family’ as ideal on this ground. Dench identified that supporters of this model tended to be young, childless couples. Whilst this study yielded several very interesting findings, it is one conclusion in particular which is most relevant to the study of this paper: Dench discovered that the ‘highest levels of personal and marital satisfaction were among people who lived in traditional families. The highest levels were connected to families in which the man worked and the woman was at home. The lowest levels occurred when the woman worked and the man stayed at home.’ This is the very conclusion which I am attempting to prove within this research study, via my hypothesis that â€Å"Divorce is more prevalent amongst families where the mother does not willingly accept the traditional female sex employment stereotype.† The concept of ‘traditional female sex employment stereotype’ describing the situation where the role of the husband is as breadwinner of the family [i.e. provides the primary family income], and where the role of the wife is as ‘housewife’ [i.e. the primary domestic labourer]. The second research study is entitled â€Å"The growth of Lone Parenthood: Diversity and Dynamics[5]†, and was conducted by Karen Rowlingson, Stephen McKay and Richard Berthoud on behalf of the University of Derby’s Economic and Social Research Council. Their findings, whilst not specifically concerned with the issue of the female sex employment stereotype, suggested that divorce occurs more frequently in families where the woman leaves her full-time employment to look after a newly arrived child. Prima facie, this finding would suggest that my conclusion is flawed; after all, surely a woman who leaves work to look after her newly born child is adhering to the traditional employment stereotype, and should therefore be less likely to engage in divorce or separation from her partner. This finding however does not contradict my hypothesis, rather helps to contextualise it; this finding from the study concerned women who had previously been non-traditional employment stereotype conformists, but had been forced to give up their work and look after their child through circumstance. A woman who does not willingly accept her traditional role is of course more unlikely to be unhappy, as her ‘individual autonomy’, which as discussed by Dench is held as the over-arching ideal by a subscriber of the non-traditionalist model, is not being allowed to predominate. This helps to explain why my hypothesis is limited to/focussed upon women who do not ‘willingly accept’ the traditional gender employment stereotype. Main Research Method and Reasons: In light of the obvious difficulties with actually asking random adults about their marital status and employment, I have decided that the best way to glean this information is by asking my fellow students at school to complete a survey questionnaire [a method usually associated with the positivist school of sociology]. It is of course necessary that a significant proportion of my sample population have parents who are divorced, and visa versa. The problem with this requirement is that a random sample of students may not throw up sufficient of the former category. What I therefore propose is a one day trip to Somerset House in London, and armed with a complete list of all students at my college, I will cross reference their surnames against the Divorce Register[6]. Once I have identified all the students whose parents are now divorced, I will randomly select a proportion of these students to take part in my survey by assigning each student with a number and using a random-number gene rator program on my computer to decide which students will be selected. By the same random-sampling technique, I will select an identical number of students whose parents are not divorced. The benefit of conducting this prior research to identify students whose parents are divorced is that it means that the questionnaire itself does not need to ask these people whether or not their parents are separated. To ask this question may prove to upset the students; after all the divorce of their parents is not something which most students would wish to discuss or even recall during a sociological study such as mine. For the student’s whose parents are apparently still together, married, it is important to confirm that the student still lives with both parents; after all just because the parents of these student’s do not appear on the Divorce registry doesn’t mean they are still living together- they could be separated without divorce, or in the process of applying for a decree nisi/absolute. The questionnaire itself will ask questions designed to glean the following information: From those students whose parents are now divorced: If the student’s mother, for the majority of the student’s life, was engaged in full-time employment prior to separation. If the students mother, for the majority of the student’s life, was engaged in part-time employment prior to separation. If the students mother, for the majority of the student’s life, was a ‘housewife’ prior to separation. The reasons for the above answers, if known. [e.g. my mother always though that it was important to look after the family while the man went out to work etc.] From those students whose parents are still married, and living together: If the students mother has been employed on a full-time basis for the majority of the student’s life. If the students mother has been employed on a full-time basis for the majority of the student’s life. If the student’s mother has been a ‘housewife’ for the majority of the student’s life. The reasons for the above answers, if known. [e.g. my mother always though that it was important to look after the family while the man went out to work etc.] In light of the fact that I will need to compare all the data if I am going to test my hypothesis, I plan to use the above information to calculate a total ‘employment score index’ for each student sample. One simple way to achieve this is by structuring the questions of the survey as score lines, i.e. On a scale of 1-9 was your mother, for the majority of your childhood, 1= fully employed 2= fully employed but took some time of work to look after me in my early years 3= was fully employed for some of the time, but also spent a good proportion of those years at home as housewife†¦ 9= has always been a housewife since I was born. In this way the indexes of each student sample whose parents are not separated can be compared with the indexes of each student sample whose parents are divorced, a comparison from which a trend may or may not be identified, and may or may not be in line with my hypothesis. 2 pre-tests will need to be conducted by a sample of 25 students in order to tweak the questionnaire[7], so that we can be assured that the final questionnaire is appropriately constructed. This survey will create qualitative results; the limited size of the sample study precludes there being any reliable quantitative conclusions, and besides, there are clearly other factors which cause couples to separate, and therefore from such a study, we can only sensibly be interested in identifying a qualitative trend. Potential Problems: One problem associated with proposed study is the fact that due to the time restraints in which I would be operating, the limited size of my sample frame would perhaps not yield sufficient results from which a reliable trend/conclusion could be drawn. This problem could of course be rectified without changing the method, but rather by increasing the sample frame, and as such is not what could be described as an inherent problem. Another problem is the fact that we are questioning students about their mothers employment history throughout their childhood. Whilst some students may remember these details with great clarity, it may well be the case that certain students are unable to recall this information with sufficient accuracy. One solution to this problem, and a way of avoiding erroneous results through sample guesswork, would be to ask each student on a scale of 1-5 how accurate they believe their assessment to be. Finally, it may also be the case that there are simply not enough students from divorced families in my school to provide sufficient and therefore reliable data for this side of the comparison. If this is the case, it may be essential to extend the survey across several additional local colleges, although the time-frame available would not make the necessary research for this sample frame extension feasible. When asking the students to confirm that their parents are still married and living together, students may not be willing to admit that their parents are currently in the process of divorce or separated, as this is often perceived to be shameful by the children of such parents. This will mean that data from students whose parents are in fact separated [but not divorced] will be erroneously attributed to the data for students whose parents are still married and living together, thus causing inaccuracies to any trend which is identified. One solution to this problem would be to allow each sample student to conduct the survey in the privacy of their own home etc., in this way there is no reason to lie as no-one will ever discover their identity. Footnotes [1] June 21st, 2004. Harper Colins Publishing. ISBN: 0007163711 [2] http://www.statistics.gov.uk/STATBASE/ssdataset.asp?vlnk=4140 [3] http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/article.asp?ID=355Pos=ColRank=1Rank=224 [4] The Place of Men in Changing Family Cultures (London York: ICS/Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 1996); [5] Rowlingson, K and McKay, S (1998) The Growth of Lone Parenthood: Diversity and Dynamics, London: PSI [6] Principal Register, Divorce Registry, Room G45, Somerset House, Royal Courts of Justice, Strand, London WC2A 2LL. [7] Converse and Presser (1986: 65) argue cogently that a minimum of two pre-tests are necessary, with pretest sizes of 25 – 75.

Treatments for Metronidazole-Resistant Giardiasis A Review

Treatments for Metronidazole-Resistant Giardiasis A Review Nicole Wagner Abstract Giardiasis is a protozoal infection and a health issue in many parts of the world for both humans and animals. Giardia spp. Are responsible for diarrheal diseases, and current treatments are not consistently effective due to the development of drug resistance. The common drugs used to treat the parasite often have undesirable side effects. New drugs, drugs previously used for other conditions, and natural remedies are all being investigated for use in treating giardiasis and reducing Giardia numbers. The mode-of-action and potency of these alternative treatments give insight into new therapies, although more research is needed. Introduction Protozoal Giardia spp. Occur in two forms, a motile, flagellated trophozoite, and a resistant cyst. The motile trophozoite adheres to the intestinal wall of its host, while the cyst form is passed in the hosts feces then re-ingested in another host (Hendrix and Robinson 2012). It is now suspected that Giardia is species specific and the human forms are included in the Giardia lamblia assemblage and include Giardia intestinalis and Giardia duodenalis (Hendrix and Robinson 2012). Giardiasis is caused by a protozoal parasite that is responsible for health issues worldwide in humans and animals. In humans, the parasite is responsible for approximately 184 million cases of giardiasis each year (Hart et al. 2015). In animals, it has been found that in North America some herds of dairy calves have the parasite in 100% of the animals, and in Australia, the most common enteric parasite of dogs is a species of Giardia (Thompson. 2000). Signs and symptoms of giardiasis include chronic and acute diarrhea and vomiting (Hart et al. 2015). These significant intestinal diseases can decrease appetite, cause malabsorption, malnutrition and even death (El-Taweed 2015). And because this parasite is found in domesticated animals, there is a significant zoonotic transmission potential (Thompson. 2000). A calf can shed 105 to 106 cysts per gram of feces, and re-infection can occur with ingesting as few as 10 cysts. As the Giardia cysts survive well in water there is a potential f or contamination of untreated water supply as well (Thompson 2000 and Watkins and Eckmann 2014). There is no vaccine available for Giardia, so the treatment of the disease involves drug therapy, like the antibiotic metronidazole, a 5-nitroimadazole class drug (Watkins and Eckmann 2014 and Hart et al. 2017). Other drugs of this class are also used to treat giardiasis with varying degrees of success. However, like many antibiotics some drug resistance has been found (Watkins and Eckmann 2014). Several studies demonstrate Giardia spp. resistance to the 5-nitroimadazole class of drugs, including one that recorded 22% of patients in a clinic in Spain receiving treatment for giardiasis did not respond to metronidazole (El-Taweed 2015). Perhaps contributing to the problem of emerging drug resistance, are the undesirable side effects of common antiprotozoal drugs. Some of these side effects include intestinal discomfort, flatulence, nausea, vomiting, and the metallic taste of the drugs (Sahib et al. 2014). It is human nature to stop using a drug with these side effects as soon as it seems to be working, and this leads to the potential for an increase in 5-nitroimidazole drug resistance over time. Also, the use of the 5-nitromadazole class drugs at lower doses for treating gingivitis and pre-surgical colorectal cases, may allow for the growth of drug-resistant forms of Giardia (El-Taweed et al. 2015). Research into how Giardia become resistant to metronidazole and the active components of other successful drugs is important to the success of treating giardiasis in humans and animals. The investigations into different drugs and herbal remedies involve identifying the mode-of-action, how the active component is effectiv e against this protozoan in both trophozoites and cyst form (Galeh et al. 2016). As an alternative to metronidazole, older antibiotic drugs, new antibiotic drugs and plant extracts and essential oils are being considered by many researchers. Newer drugs are being considered to overcome Giardia resistance like auranofin, a drug currently prescribed for rheumatoid arthritis (Watkins and Eckmann 2014.). Researchers are also considering plants and plant extracts for a new anti-giardia agent. These extracts have been used in traditional medicine to treat diarrhea in places in South America, India, Iran, and Turkey where Giardia is endemic (Watkins and Eckmann 2014). Research has been done investigating compounds from garlic (Mikaili et al. 2014), ginger and cinnamon (Mahmoud et al. 2014), pomegranate (Al-Megrin 2017), and native plants from Brazil (Martins et al. 2015), the Yucatan (Sergio et al. 2005) and their effectiveness against Giardia. Identifying the compounds in the plants that are most effective against the protozoa will provide another option for treatment of giardiasis. Drug Therapies As previously mentioned, the number of cases of Metronidazole-resistant giardiasis is growing. Other 5-nitroimadazole and nitro-class drugs have been tested against Giardia like nitazoxanide and furazolidone (Watkins and Eckmann 2014). These drugs work by reducing the nitrogen group on the drug compounds to activate toxic free radicals. The advantages of the new drugs are shorter length of treatment and reduced cellular damage to the liver and kidneys (Jarrad et al 2016). Side effects are seen in the use of these drugs, as in the case of furazolidone, where some hemolysis was observed in some patients (Watkins and Eckmann 2014) and in 5-nitroimadazole drugs side effects like nausea, vomiting and headaches are reported (Jarrad et al. 2016). When developing new drug treatments, researchers investigate how the parasite is developing resistance to current treatments. In the case of 5-nitroimodazole drugs, the potency of a substance against Giardia species is due to the activation of the drug by an enzyme pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR). The drugs nitro group is reduced by the protozoans PFOR enzyme, producing toxic free radicals which bond to target molecules in the microbe, inactivating them and killing the parasite (Watkins and Eckmann 2014). The resistant protozoans have down-regulated the PFOR enzyme (Jarrad et al. 2016 and Galeh et al. 2016). To treat giardiasis, research has focused on this nitro group and the formation of toxic free radicals. Other drugs are being developed that incorporate a benzene ring, instead of (or in addition to) the nitro groups. These drugs act on the Giardia cellular vesicles, causing swelling, and are more effective than nitazoxanide and metronidazole (Watkins and Eckmann 2014) . Not all research has resulted in support for the development of new drugs in the 5-nitromiadazole class. In a study conducted in Iran, researchers tested the theory in human clinical studies, utilizing PCR to identify genetic mutations that appeared in metronidazole-resistant Giardia lamblia. In the metronidazole-resistant G. lamblia, the protozoa did not show down regulation of PFOR and it is suspected that other predisposing factors were responsible for the drugs ineffectiveness(Galeh et al. 2016). Further research is being done to test the new drugs like nitroimidazole and furazolidone for cytotoxicity towards human liver, kidney, and intestinal cells (Watkins and Eckmann 2014). These side effects can be serious in immune-compromised subjects and children. Older antibiotic drugs like albendazole and mebendazole, benzimidazole class drugs, have been shown to be effective against Giardia as well. These drugs are currently used to treat roundworm infections. The benzimidazole class drugs act by binding to tubulin and interfering with the protozoan cytoskeleton (Watkins and Eckmann, 2014). Research into the effectiveness of metronidazole and albendazole in mice showed that some Giardia isolates developed resistance to one or the other drug and in some cases both drugs (Lemà ©e et al. 2000). In the case of albendazole, some Giardia duodenalis resistance developed in a mouse model (Lemà ©e et al. 2000). In another study in Bolivia when albendazole was used to reduce the hookworm infection, the number of Giardia infections increased showing some (Watkins and Eckmann 2014). Drug research of existing drug libraries has also revealed some drugs that previously were not used as antimicrobials are effective against Giardia. A drug used for rheumatoid arthritis, auranofin, inhibits the growth of metronidazole-resistant Giardia. It works by inhibiting the thioredoxin-glutathione reductase enzyme (Watkins and Eckmann 2014). A drug used for obesity treatment, orlistat, which is poorly absorbed, is active in the intestine. Orlistat works by inhibiting lipases in Giardia isolates, preventing lipid metabolism (Watkins and Eckmann 2014). Ginger and Cinnamon Current research into metronidazole-resistant Giardia infections has gone beyond investigating new drugs or existing drug libraries. Diarrheal treatments around the world have shown promise in providing avenues for new giardiasis therapies and treatments. Some of this research involves the investigation into anti-nausea spices, ginger and cinnamon. Research has been conducted using ginger extracts in both in vivo and in vitro studies. In an in vitro study (Abdel-Hafeez et al. 2016), a comparison was made between gingers and nitazoxanides effectiveness against Giardia lamblia trophozoites. Ginger was chosen to contrast with the drug because of its historical use as an anti-nausea and anti-diarrheal treatment. Ginger extract is an antioxidant with alkaloids, saponins, tannins, and flavonoids. It is suspected that either the antioxidant or flavonoids have a negative effect on the trophozoites (Mahmoud et al. 2014). A study investigated curcumin, an antioxidant, also found in Zingiber officinale and other pungent spices (Perrez-Arriaga et al. 2006) showed that in the presence of curcumin at concentrations similar to metronidazole, significant swelling was seen in the Giardia trophozoites, indicating possible cell membrane interference (Perrez-Arriaga et al. 2006). In the research conducted by Abdel-Hafeez et al. (2016), cultured fecal samples treated with ginger extract at 20mg/mL resulted in similar reduction of the number of viable trophozoites in the culture as nitazoxanide. The findings were based on counts of viable trophozoites (pear-shaped, mobile, and non-refractory quality) under a light microscope. Verification of findings may use in vivo studies with mice or rats, and improved counting and staining techniques are indicated for future research. Meanwhile, ginger continues to be used for a variety of intestinal infections in Thailand, India, and Egypt (Abdel-Hafeez et al. 2016). In the in vivo study by Mahmoud, et al (2014)., cinnamon was also evaluated against Giardia trophozoites and cysts. As stated previously, the cyst is found in fecal samples as a transmissible form. The researchers This study involved using Giardia lamblia cyst infected rats and measured doses of ginger at 10 and 20 mg/kg/day and cinnamon at 10 and 20 mg/kg/day. As Perrez-Arriaga et al. (2006) previously researched, active compounds in ginger may affect the protozoans cell membrane. In another study, Proanthocyanidins were identified as an active compound in cinnamon (Williams et al. 2015). Proanthocyanidins, also found in berries, disrupt protozoans adhesive ability which is necessary for the trophozoite to maintain its position in the intestine (Anthony et al. 2007). In the Mahmoud study (2014) the rats were euthanized and their intestines washed for a measurement of trophozoites and to determine intestinal damage (Anthony et al. 2007). Their stools were also collected for three day s prior to euthanasia to perform a count of cysts excreted (Mahmoud et al. 2014). According to the results of this study, cinnamon given to the rats at the 20 mg/kg dose resulted in a 100% reduction in the number of cysts found in their fecals, and a 34% reduction in the number of trophozoites. When rats were given a dose of 20mg/kg of ginger the number of cysts found in their stool was reduced by 90.1% and the number of trophozoites in the intestinal wash was reduced by 75.45%. So, the cinnamon was more active against cysts and the ginger was more active against the trophozoites in the rats (Mahmoud et al. 2014). The study also utilized electron microscopy to count and identify Giardia cysts and trophozoites. By utilizing this technology, and the researchers were able to show that not only was the infection reduced with cinnamon, but the intestinal mucosa was healthier in the samples taken as compared to the ginger-dosed rats (Mahmoud et al. 2014). This study, however did not utili ze a positive control group to measure the difference (if any) between using ginger and cinnamon extracts compared with using metronidazole or other drug treatment for giardiasis. Additional research may determine whether the intestinal mucosa would improve, with the drug treatment as occurred in the study with cinnamon and ginger (Mahmoud et al. 2014). Garlic and Shallot One of the most promising and researched herbal extract is allicin, a component of plants in the garlic and onion family. Garlic and shallot plants have been used in traditional medicine in various parts of the world for hundreds of years (Mikaili et al. 2013). Sulfur-based components like allicin (diallyl dithiosulfinate), diallyl disulfide, and S-allylcystein of these plants are of interest to research for use in pharmacological studies (Mikaili et al. 2013). In an in vitro study investigating whole garlic extract (Harris et al. 2000), garlic was shown to be effective against Giardia intestinalis at a concentration of 0.3mg/mL. The researchers went on to examine how the compounds in garlic were acting on the Giardia and whether allicin was the compound of interest. Allicin has a very short half-life in vivo, but the thiosulfates that result from its breakdown are bioavailable longer to act against Giardia trophozoites (Harris et al. 2000). In this study the researchers investigated the anti-parasitic activity of these compounds, and they showed that diallyl disulphide was particularly effective in reducing the number of trophozoites. Another component, allyl alcohol, damaged the trophozoites by causing cellular swelling and immobility (Harris et al. 2000). In another study focusing on diallyl trisulfide (DAT) from garlic, a concentration of 300 ug/mL was effective against Giardia lamblia (Lun et al. 1994). The researchers used an in vitro test to determine the IC50 for DAT, and the result was 8.5-14 ug/mL, using the same tests that determined the IC50 of metronidazole. The use of DAT in China for treatment of other parasitic infections is not uncommon (Lun et al. 1994), but it will be necessary to determine how DAT is effective against the parasite in vivo in future research. One avenue that research may pursue is in studying how DAT affects tubulin (Hosono et al. 2005), which would indicate that this substance has a similar effect as the benzimidazole drugs like albendazole. Further research into obtaining effective concentrations of these components of garlic and onions is necessary. Herbal Extracts Other herbal extracts have been investigated for their biologically active components and effectiveness as a treatment for giardiasis. Three of these show promise in recent studies. Peppermint (Mentha x piperta L.) is used as an herbal remedy for stomach discomfort (Vidal et al. 2007). Dill is also used in some areas of the world to treat children with diarrhea (Sahib et al. 2014). Pomegranate peel contains some substances that prove active against Giardia (Al-Megrin 2016). Mentha x piperta (peppermint) is known to have a relaxation effect on gastrointestinal smooth muscle, and this is suspected to be the result of the menthol affecting calcium channels (Kiefer et al. 2008). In one study methanolic extract from Mentha x piperta was tested against Giardia lamblia (Vidal et al. 2007). This study measures IC50, which is the calculation of the amount of a substance necessary to inhibit or kill one-half of the microbes. The IC50 after 48 hours of exposure was 0.8 ug/mL, similar to the IC50 of metronidazole and furazalidone after 24 hours (Vidal et al. 2007). The study tested different concentrations of the dichloromethane (DCM) from Mentha x piperta and found that a dose of 100 ug/mL after 48 hours almost eliminated the presence of trophozoites in the culture media (Vidal et al. 2007). The study also examined how DCM was altering the morphology of trophozoites utilizing electron microscopy, and found changes to plasma membranes (Vidal et al. 2007). This sugg ests the need for further research into why the protozoal membranes were altered, what biologically active components of peppermint were involved, and whether this alteration would also affect intestinal cells in mammals (measuring potential toxicity). In a study that researched the extracts from the Dill plant (Anethum graveolens), researchers conducted a clinical trial with children Giardia trophozoites and cysts, or if the dill acted on the muscle cells in the intestine, reducing smooth muscle contraction. Further research needs to be conducted into these issues. Pomegranate peel extract was also tested for anti-Giardia activity in another study (Al-Megrin 2016). Researchers studied mice that were infected with the Giardia cysts, and given an extract of pomegranate peel daily. Then the number of cysts produced in the mouse stool and the antigen presence for Giardia were counted and measured respectively. There was a reduction in the number of cysts counted in the groups of mice that had received the pomegranate, however there was also a natural reduction in the number of cysts in the studys control group (Al-Megrin 2016). The researchers also reported that the rate of detection of the Giardia antigen in the groups that were treated was significantly (P Native Plants Ethnopharmacology is becoming one method for identifying plant-based sources for new pharmacological treatments. Ethnopharmacology studies involve interviewing people who are native to specific areas to identify historical and current plant species used to treat disease. In the case of Giardia treatment, researchers identified diarrhea as the key symptom in 90% of human cases (Neiva et al. 2014). Although people reporting to clinics or hospitals with diarrhea did not necessarily identify causative agents, in some cases they were self-treating with plants from the area or from their own gardens (Neiva, et al. 2014). The identification of plants used by people suffering from diarrhea allowed researchers to focus on specific plant species in anti-giardiasis studies. In one study by Neiva et al. (2014) the researchers focused on an area around Sao Luis, Brazil. From interviewing and collecting plant samples that people were using to treat diarrhea and dysentery symptoms, the researchers identified five potential plants to test for anti-Giardia effectiveness. The researchers also identified the part of the plants and the preparation of the plants used for treatment of diarrhea by these patients of a healthcare facility and private specialty institution (Neiva et al. 2014). The five species of plants selected to investigate were Anacardium occidentale L., Chenopodium ambrosioides L., Passiflora edulis Sims., Psiddiumguajava L., and Stachytarpheta cayennesis (Rich) Vahl. (Neiva et al. 2014). It was found that all the plants had some giardicidal activity, but Passiflora was most effective at IC50 In another similar ethnopharmacology study, researchers investigated plants native to the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico that were used to treat diarrhea (Paraza-Sanchez et al. 2005). This study was conducted in vitro using 10 methanol extracts from native plants. In this study Tridax procumens as a whole plant was used (air-dried and powdered into methanol, then evaporated, and added to DMSO) (Paraza-Sanchez et al. 2005). The researchers identified from other studies that the plant contains hydrocarbons, fatty acids, flavonoids, bis-bithiophene. Flavonoids may contain polyphenols and inhibit Giardia from adhering to the intestinal wall (Anthony et al. 2007) In other plants tested, C. dentata, D. cahagenesis, and B. cressifolia have not had their chemical components analyzed, although they all had giardicidal activity (Paraza-Sanchez et al. 2005). It is unknown at this time why these native plants are effective against Giardia spp. (Paraza-Sanchez et al. 2005). Research has been conducted on the Rubus liebmanii medicinal plant native to Mexico. The antiprotozoal active compounds were identified as epicatechin and catechin (polyphenols), Nigaichigoside F1, beta-sitosterol, squalene, and 3,4 hydroxybenzoic acid (Jimà ©nez-Arellanes et al. 2012). In this study, extracts from the plant were fractionated to identify specific compounds, an extract of R. liebomanii was tested against G. lamblia with a negative control and a metronidazole infused positive control, and the research continued using guinea pigs and mice as test subjects. The results indicated that the Nigaichigoside F1 had an IC50 of 2.17 ug/mL as compared with metronidazole which had an IC50 of 0.5 ug/mL in cultures of G. lamblia (Jimà ©nez-Arellanes et al. 2012). When the potential toxicity of the plant was tested in male rats, the pure extract of R. liebmanii was not toxic, even at 1000mg/kg dosages (Jimà ©nez-Arellanes et al. 2012). Further research into these plants may involv e identifying how the active components are working against the protozoans and identify more effective treatments, which will need to be tested in vivo. Solanum lycoparum is also a native plant of Brazil. In research published in 2015 (Gilmarcio et al. 2015), this native species was investigated for its anti-Giardia potential. The fruit of this plant is used in traditional medicine (Gilmarcio et al. 2015). Two glycoalkaloids, solamargin (Sg) and solasonine (Sn) have been identified as having potential as anti-Giardia treatments (Gilmarcio et al. 2015). Both compounds were effective against Giardia lamblia, with Sg having an IC50 of 120.3 ug/mL and Sn having an IC50 of 103.7 ug/mL. However, when both compounds were mixed as they would be in the fruit of S. lycoparum, their IC50 was 13.23 ug/mL, much lower (Gilmarcio et al. 2015). This demonstrates a synergistic effect of the compounds. The researchers also used an index of selectivity calculation to measure effectiveness of the compound as compared to toxicity against macrophages, and the combined glycoalkaloids had a relatively high index (Gilmarcio et al. 2015). This index was neces sary because glycoalkaloids can be toxic. In vitro studies of the combined Sn+Sg treatment would provide additional research opportunities and determine the toxic effects of the glycoalkaloid while treating Giardia lamblia. Glycoalkaloids affect permeability of mammalian intestinal cells (Gee et al. 1996), however the glycoalkaloids found and studied from the S. lycoparum are not the most toxic. It is likely; however, no research could be found in the current literature searches, that the effect of glycoalkaloids on the Giardia trophozoites cell membrane did cause cellular swelling and changes to the vesicles and flagella. Essential Oils Clove oil, an essential oil from Syzgium aromaticum, has been used to treat digestive disorders and diarrhea (Machado et al. 2011). Research into essential oils has shown they are effective against many bacterial and fungal infections, but little research has been done to discover how the oil works (Machado et al. 2011). Eugenol is a major of several essential oils including S. aromaticum, and in this research the eugenol comprised 85% of the essential oil tested (Machado et al. 2011).In a study testing the effect of clove oil and eugenol on Giardia lamblia it was shown that S. aromaticum had an IC50 value of 134 ug/mL and eugenol had an IC50 value of 101 ug/mL (Machado et al. 2011). The study also utilized scanning and transmission electron microscopy to measure morphological changes in the Giardia that were incubated with the S. aromaticum essential oil. It was observed that the adherence of the Giardia was inhibited in the presence of eugenol (Machado et al. 2011). Giardia normall y attach to the intestinal wall to maintain position, obtain nutrients, and reproduce. The essential oil contained eugenol, and although it affected adherence, it did not cause the Giardia trophozoites to lyse, so the results in this study indicated that other components of the S. aromaticum oil were responsible for the cell death (Machado et al. 2011). Other essential oils are used to treat digestive issues. One, from Ocimum basilicum of the basil family, was studied for its anti-Giardia effects (de Almeida et al. 2007). In this study the researchers again isolated components of the essential oil and tested for antigiardial activity (de Almeida et al. 2007). This study also investigated eugenol as one of those components, and found the eugenol was effective against the Giardia trophozoites (de Almeida et al. 2007). The study included testing the linalool, which makes up 69.33% of the essential oil in addition to eugenol. Linalool was shown to be even more effective at reducing the number of viable Giardia lamblia trophozoites (de Almeida et al. 2007). To verify potential toxicity of the essential oil and its components, the researchers tested mouse macrophages in the same concentrations of Ocimum basilicum, eugenol and linalool and found that there was little to no effect on the cells (de Almeida et al. 2007). The researchers also identified an inhibitory effect of the oil and it components to a group of cysteine peptidases enzymes that are commonly found in these protozoans (de Almeida et al. 2007). The inhibition of cysteine peptidases has been shown to have a lethal effect on trophozoites of another protozoal species, Entamoeba histolytica (Ankri et al. 1997). Ozone In an interesting study (Boland-Nazar et al. 2016), olive oil injected with ozone was tested as a treatment for giardiasis. In an in vitro study, the tubes of Giardia were combined with different concentrations of ozonated olive oil, and this proved effective against Giardia cysts after 100 hours of incubation (Boland-Nazar et al. 2016). It is suspected by the researchers that the extra oxygen atom acts a free radical, like the immunological response of macrophages and neutrophils (Boland-Nazar et al. 2016). Olive oil is effective at stabilizing a delivery system for ozone without losing its durability (Boland-Nazar et al. 2016), and the higher the concentration of ozone in the oil, the more effective the treatment is against Giardia cysts. The researchers suggest conducting an in vivo study with this substance to verify their hypothesis (Boland-Nazar et al. 2016). Discussion Research into treating giardiasis will continue as standard treatments like metronidazole go up against greater drug resistance. The mode of action of different therapies has been investigated and includes inhibiting PFOR, cysteine proteinases, inhibiting adherence (Anthony et al. 2007), tubulin and cytoskeleton interference, and cell membrane interference. Table 1 shows some of the different treatments dosage requirements and active compounds. The 5nitroimadazole drugs are the most commonly prescribed treatments for giardiasis world-wide. New drugs are being developed from within this class, altering the nitro-group or adding benzene rings to the molecules to improve effectiveness considering growing metronidazole resistance (Watkins and Eckmann 2014). Other drugs that have been prescribed for anti-parasitic treatment or other purposes entirely are also being investigated. This includes anthelminthic drugs as well as drugs that were initially developed to treat obesity and rheumatoid arthritis (Watkins and Eckmann 2014). Finally, herbal, spice, and plant-based extracts are being investigated for their antiprotozoal activity. Although Table1 does not show an IC50 for each of the compounds discussed in this paper, it does highlight the active components. Table 1: Effectiveness of different substances in inhibiting Giardia IC50 Active compound Reference Metronidazole 0.8 ug/mL 5-nitroimadazole Jarrad et al. 2016, Watkins and Eckmann, 2014, Vidal et al 2007 Albendazole 52.4 ug/mL Benzimidazole Jarrad et al. 2016, Watkins and Eckmann, 2014, Lemee et al. 2000 Furazolidone 0.65 ug/mL 5-nitrofurans Jarrad et al. 2016, Watkins and Eckmann, 2014, Vidal et al 2007 Garlic 14 ug/mL Diallyl trisulfide Lun